Self-Assessments

Self-Assessments

Self-Assessments

1. This technique involves applicants generating self-ratings on relevant performance Over time, self-assessments can be useful to clarify job performance expectations between employees and supervisors (Bassett & Meyer, 1968; Campbell & Lee, 1988), but initial discrepancies in understanding of what job requirements and performance dimensions between self- and supervisor ratings cause problems in a performance appraisal system (e.g., Ash, 1980).
2. Problems with this approach:
   1. Self-ratings show greater leniency, less variability, more bias, and less agreement with the judgments of others (Ash, 1980; Harris & Schaubroeck, 1988; Johns, Nilsen & Campbell, 1993; Thornton, 1980; van Vliet, Kletke, & Chakraborty, 1994; Williams & Levy, 1992).
   2. The predictive validity of this technique is questionable (Mabe & West, 1982). The predictors related to self-assessments and supervisor's ratings may show a lack of congruence (e.g., self-efficacy related to self-ratings) (Lane & Herriot, 1990).
   3. Research suggests that applicants may not honestly respond to this type of technique (Love & Hughes, 1994).
   4. Self assessment scores tend to be inflated (Gupta & Beehr, 1982; Ash, 1980).
   5. Evidence suggests there is low face validity and perceived fairness associated with using this technique to promote law enforcement personnel.
   6. The evidence suggests low accuracy compared to objective measures (George & Smith, 1990; DeNisi & Shaw, 1977).
   7. Self-assessments may not correspond to ratings from other sources (e.g., peers) due to a lack of congruence on which specific job dimensions are to be assessed and the relative importance of specific job dimensions (Zalesny & Kirsch, 1989; Zammuto, London, & Rowland, 1982).
   8. Congruency in ratings between supervisors and employees may be affected by the decision of supervisors to agree with the self-assessments of employees to avoid potential employee relation conflicts (Farh, Werbel, & Bedeian, 1988).

Future Autobiographies

1. A candidate is asked to write a future autobiography stating what he/she would be doing in five years. The autobiographies are then scored by two judges for differentiation, demand, and agency. Agency is defined as the extent to which a person sees himself/herself as the prime agent in determining the course of his/her future life. Demand is defined as the extent to which an individual portrays his/her life as a long-term, continuing effort on his/her part. Differentiation is defined as the extent to which an individual has created a complex, detailed mapping of his/her future (Tullar & Barrett, 1976).
2. Problems with this technique:
   1. This test does not measure any of the KSA's that were identified through the job analysis.
   2. There is no evidence that this method would reduce adverse impact.

   

Physical Abilities Tests

Physical Abilities Tests

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Physical Abilities Tests: Tests typically test applicants on some physical requirement such as lifting strength, rope climbing, or obstacle course completion.

Advantages can idendentify individuals who are physically unable to perform the essential functions of a job without risking injury to themselves or others can result in decreased costs related to disability/medical claims, insurance, and workers compensation decreased absenteeism

Disadvantages costly to administer requirements must be shown to be job related through a thorough job analysis may have age based disparate impact against older applicants

Tips Fitness for the job Rejection of an applicant for failing a physical abilities test must be based on a determination of the individual's fitness for the job not on a general determination on the disabilities of the applicant. Liability Although a physician may administer the physical abilities test, it is the employer who decides to hire or not, therefore the liability for violations of Title VII or ADA will rest with the employer. Job Analysis Identify stresses that occur on the job.

Work Sample Tests

Work Sample Tests

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Work Sample Tests: Designed to have high content validity through a close relationship with the job. Work Sample tests are based on the premise that the best predictor of future behavior is observed behavior under similar situations. These tests require the examinee to perform tasks that are similar to those that are performed on the job.

Advantages high reliability high content validity since work samples are a sample of the actual work performed on the job low adverse impact because of their relationship to the job, these tests are typically viewed more favorable by examinees than aptitude or personality tests difficult for applicants to fake job proficiency which helps to increase the relationship between score on the test and performance on the job Work Sample tests use equipment that is the same or substantially similar to the actual equipment used on the job

Disadvantages costly to administer; often can only be administered to one applicant at a time although useful for jobs where tasks and duties can be completed in a short period of time, these tests have less ability to predict performance on jobs where tasks may take days or weeks to complete less able to measure aptitudes of an applicant thus restricting the test to measuring ability to perform the work sample and not more difficult tasks that may be encountered on the job

Tips Job Analysis Critical for identifying the content of the job from which samples will be developed. The Critical Incident Technique would be useful for identifying job duties/tasks that, if sampled on the test, would result in high predictive validity (criterion related validity). High Content Validity The test should be constructed with the intent of developing a highly content valid test. The content validity is build into the test. Equipment If specific equipment is used by incumbents on the job, try to incorporate all or some of that equipment on the test. Of couse, the safety of the applicant should take precedence over use of dangerous or unfamiliar tools or machines.

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Types of Work Sample Tests

1. Work-Sample Tests of Trainability These are tests through a period of instruction when the applicant is expected to learn tasks involved in a work sample. The work-sample tests of trainability are suitable for untrained applicants with no previous job experience. The predictive validity of this technique is low relative to other techniques and there is evidence the validity of the instrument may attenuate over time.
2. Simulation of an Event These tests present the candidate with a picture of an incident along with quotations from those involved. The candidates then respond to a series of questions in which they write down the decisions they would make. The test is scored by subject matter experts.
3. Low Fidelity Simulations These tests present applicants with descriptions of work situations and five alternative responses for each situation. Applicants choose the responses they would most likely and least likely make in each situation.
4. Work-samples Applicants perform observable, job-related behaviors as predictors of criterion performance. It is not feasible to adapt certain work behaviors for testing. Work samples often are not conducive to group administration and, therefore, were dropped from consideration because of concerns regarding test security.

Validating Work Sample Tests

1. Content Validity The most direct relationship between the test and job would be shown through content validation. The tasks and duties performed on the test would be compared to the tasks and duties performed on the job. The test should encompass significant (in quantity or in importance) tasks/duties of the job.
2. Criterion Validity To measure this validity, you must first determine what criteria will be used. Two common forms of criteria are:
   • Supervisory ratings of the incumbent's job performance. The disadvantage of using supervisory ratings as criteria is that they typically lack sufficient reliability to be used for statistical analysis. The reliability of these measures is attenuated by rater errors such as 'halo' or 'leniency'. These ratings alto tend to lack the variability necessary to show a correlation between predictor and criterion.
   • Production measures such as quantity or quality of work. Production measures are not available for some jobs.
   The predictor measures used with work sample tests include:
   • Number of work samples completed (using a time limit)
   • Time to complete work samples (using a limit on the number of work samples to be completed on the test)
   • Number and type of errors

   

Cognitive Ability Measures

Cognitive Ability Measures

Cognitive Abilties Tests: Paper and pencil or individualized assessment measures of an individual's general mental ability or intelligence.

These tests may be categorized as:
• General Intelligence Tests
• Aptitude Tests
  • Mechanical Aptitude
  • Clerical Aptitude
  • Spatial Aptitude

Advantages highly reliable verbal reasoning and numerical tests have shown high validity for a wide range of jobs the validity rises with increasing complexity of the job combinations of aptitude tests have higher validities than individual tests alone may be administered in group settings where many applicants can be tested at the same time scoring of the tests may be completed by computer scanning equipment lower cost than personality tests

Disadvantages non-minorities typically score one standard deviation above minorities which may result in adverse impact depending on how the scores are used in the selection process differences between males and females in abilities (e.g., knowledge of mathematics) may negatively impact the scores of female applicants

Tips Avoid pure intelligence tests Intelligence tests may require special administrive procedures and increased costs associated with administration, scoring, and interpreting the results. Aptitude tests are generally more suited for the employment area. Job Analysis Before any test is administered, you should conduct a job analysis to identify the job requirements and duties. Tests should be chosen to measure aptitudes and abilities related to the job. Adverse Impact Try to avoid tests that have demonstrated adverse impact. If a test is shown to have adverse impact, then the use of the test should be validated in accordance with the Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection Procedures. Follow the Instructions Most tests include instructions for proper test administration and scoring.

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Summary of Cognitive Ability Tests

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Examples of Cognitive Ability Tests

1. Employee Aptitude Survey A battery of employment tests designed to meet the practical requirements of a personnel office. Consists of 10 cognitive, perceptual, and psychomotor ability tests. Nine of the 10 tests have 5-minute time limits. The remaining test requires two to ten minutes of testing time. Is a tool for personnel selection and a useful diagnostic tool for vocational guidance and career counseling. For situations in which it is desirable to retest an individual on an alternate form, special retest norms are provided for interpreting retest scores.
   • Test 1--Verbal Comprehension. Each item consists of one word in capital letters followed by four words in small letters. The respondent is to choose the word in small letters that means about the same as the word in capital letters. Scoring is the number right minus 1/3 the number wrong.
   • Test 2--Numerical Ability. A battery of three tests: integers, decimal fractions and common fractions, each is timed separately. Designed to measure skill in the four basic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division.
   • Test 3--Visual Pursuit. Designed to measure the ability to make rapid scanning movements of the eyes without being distracted by other irrelevant visual stimulation. Involves the visual tracing of lines through an entangled network.
   • Test 4--Visual Speed And Accuracy. The test consists of two columns of numbers; the respondent decides whether the number in the first column in exactly the same as the number in the second.
   • Test 5--Space Visualization. Designed to measure the ability to visualize forms in space and to manipulate these forms or objects mentally. The test taker is shown a group of numbered, piled blocks and must determine, for a specifically numbered block, how many other blocks touch it.
   • Test 6--Numerical Reasoning. Designed to measure the ability to analyze logical relationships and to see the underlying principles of such relationships. This is also known as the process of inductive reasoning--making generalizations from specific instances. The test taker is given a series of numbers and determines what the next number will be. Scoring is the number right minus 1/4 the number wrong.
   • Test 7--Verbal Reasoning, Revised. Designed to measure the ability to analyze verbally stated facts and to make valid judgments on the basis of the logical implications of such facts; and thus, the ability to analyze available information in order to make practical decisions. Scoring is the number of right answers minus 1/2 the wrong answers.
   • Test 8--Word Fluency. Designed to measure the ability to express oneself rapidly, easily and with flexibility. Word fluency involves the speed and freedom of word usage as opposed to understanding verbal meanings. People who measure high in this ability are particularly good at expressing themselves and in finding the right word at the right time. The test taker is given a letter of the alphabet and asked to write as many words as possible that begin with that letter.
   • Test 9--Manual Speed And Accuracy. Designed to measure the ability to make rapid and precise movements with the hands and fingers. Also measures, according to the authors, the temperamental willingness to perform highly repetitive, routine, and monotonous work. The test taker is to put a pencil dot in as many circles as he or she can in five minutes, without letting the dots touch the sides of the small circles.
   • Test 10-Symbolic Reasoning. : Designed to measure the ability to think and reason abstractly, using symbols rather than words or numbers; to manipulate abstract symbols mentally; and to make judgments and decisions which are logical and valid. Each problem contains a statement and a conclusion and uses certain symbols such as the equal sign and mathematical symbols for greater than and smaller than, etc. The test taker determines whether the conclusion is definitely true, definitely false, or impossible to determine on the basis of the statement. Scoring is the number of right answers minus 1/2 the wrong answers.
2. Progressive Matrices, Advanced Sets I and II. A nonverbal test designed for use as an aid in assessing mental ability. Requires the examinee to solve problems presented in abstract figures and designs. Scores are said to correlate well with comprehensive intelligence tests. Set II provides a means of assessing all the analytical and integral operations involved in the higher thought processes and differentiates between people of superior intellectual ability.
3. Kaufman Brief Intelligence Test. Brief individually administered measure of verbal and nonverbal intelligence for people aged 4-90. Developed specifically for screening purposes and for those situations where it would be difficult to do a more in-depth assessment. Norms are provided for all ages. Composed of two subtests, vocabulary and matrices. Vocabulary measures verbal, school-related skills by assessing word knowledge and verbal concept formation. Matrices measures nonverbal skills and ability to solve new problems. Items in matrices subtest involve pictures and designs.
4. Short-term Memory Tests A form of cognitive ability test that are exemplified by short-term memory tasks such as forward digit span and serial rote learning, which do not require mental manipulation of inputs in order to provide an output. Short-term memory tests lack face validity in predicting job performance.
5. Information Processing Tests Selection tests that have the same information processing requirements that occur on the job. In other words, the tests are tailored for each particular job. There is some evidence that adverse impact is reduced.

   

Biographical Inventories

Personnel Selection: Methods: Biographical Inventories

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Biographical Data in Selection: Techniques for scoring application forms or biographical questionnaires to be used for selection of applicants.

Advantages useful for jobs where a large number of employees are performing the same or similar job useful for jobs where there are a large number of applicants relative to the number of openings	Disadvantages
Tips

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Summary of Biographical Data Selection Procedures

Types of Biographical Data Selection Procedures

1. Background Information/Application Blanks Paper-and-pencil questionnaires, interviews, and communications with past employers in order to assess an individual's behavioral reliability, integrity, and personal adjustment. In order to implement this technique a validation study would have to be conducted.
2. Empirically-keyed Biodata Applicants are presented with a list of questions pertaining to such things as one's economic stability, work ethic orientation, and educational achievement. Applicants' scores are determined by weighting each item according to the item's empirically derived relationship to the criterion of interest. This technique requires a validation study to be carried out in order to obtain the empirically derived weights for the biodata.
3. Rationally-keyed Biodata Applicants are presented with a list of questions pertaining to such things as one's economic stability, work ethic orientation and educational achievement. Applicants' scores are determined by weighting each item according to the item's rationally derived relationship to the criterion of interest. Research indicates the predictive validity of this technique may be lower than other available techniques with no evidence for reduced adverse impact against minorities. 

Personnel Selection: Methods: Personality Tests

Personnel Selection: Methods: Personality Tests

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Personality Tests: A selection procedure measure the personality characteristics of applicants that are related to future job performance. Personality tests typically measure one or more of five personality dimensions: extroversion, emotional stability, agreeableness, conscientiousness, and openness to experience.

Advantages can result in lower turnover due if applicants are selected for traits that are highly correlated with employees who have high longevity within the organization can reveal more information about applicant's abilities and interests can identify interpersonal traits that may be needed for certain jobs

Disadvantages difficult to measure personality traits that may not be well defined applicant's training and experience may have greater impact on job performance than applicant's personality responses by applicant may may be altered by applicant's desire to respond in a way they feel would result in their selection lack of diversity if all selected applicants have same personality traits cost may be prohibitive for both the test and interpretation of results lack of evidence to support validity of use of personality tests

Tips Select traits carefully An employer that selects applicants with high degree of 'assertiveness', 'independence', and 'self-confidence' may end up excluding females significantly more than males which would result in adverse impact. Select tests carefully Any tests should have been analyzed for (high) reliability and (low) adverse impact. Not used exclusively Personality tests should not be the sole instrument used for selecting applicants. Rather, they should be used in conjunction with other procedures as one element of the selection process. Applicants should not be selected on the basis of personality tests alone.

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Summary of Personality Tests

1. Since there is not a correct answer to personality tests, the scoring of the procedure could be questioned.
2. Recent litigation has suggested that some items for these types of tests may be too intrusive (Soroka v. Dayton Hudson, 1991).
3. This technique lacks face validity. In other words, it would be difficult to show how individual questions on certain personality measures are job related even if the overall personality scale is a valid predictor of job performance.
4. Hooke and Krauss (1971) administered three (3) tests to sergeant candidates; the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory, the Allport-Vemon-Lindzey Study of Values, and the Gough Adjective Check List. These tests did not differentiate candidates rated as good sergeant material from those rates as poorer candidates. The researchers concluded that the groups may have been so similar that these tests were not sensitive enough to differentiate them.

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Types of Personality Tests

1. Personal Attribute Inventory. An interpersonal assessment instrument which consists of 50 positive and 50 negative adjectives from Gough's Adjective Check List. The subject is to select 30 which are most descriptive of the taregt group or person in question. This instrument was specifically designed to tap affective reactions and may be used in either assessing attitudes toward others or as a self-concept scale.
2. Personality Adjective Checklist A comprehensive, objective measure of eight personality styles (which are closely aligned with DSM-III-R Axis II constructs). These eight personality styles are: introversive, inhibited, cooperative, sociable, confident, forceful, respectful, and sensitive. This instrument is designed for use with nonpsychiatric patients and normal adults who read minimally at the eighth grade level. Test reports are computer-generated and are intended for use by qualified professionals only. Interpretive statements are based on empirical data and theoretical inference. They are considered probabilistic in nature and cannot be considered definitive. (2K )
3. Cross-Cultural Adaptability Inventory Self-scoring six-point rating scale is a training instrument designed to provide feedback to individuals about their potential for cross-cultural effectiveness. It is most effective when used as part of a training program. It can also be used as a team-building tool for culturally diverse work groups and as a counseling tool for people in the process of cross-cultural adjustment. The inventory contains 50 items, distributed among 4 subscales: emotional resilience, flexibility/openness, perceptual acuity, personal autonomy. Materials:
4. California Psychological Inventory Multipurpose questionnaire designed to assess normal personality characteristics important in everyday life that individuals make use of to understand, classify, and predict their own behaviors and that of others. In this revision, two new scales, empathy and independence, have been added; semantic changes were made in 29 items; and 18 items were eliminated. The inventory is applicable for use in a variety of settings, including business and industry, schools and colleges, clinics and counseling agencies, and for cross cultural and other research. May be used to advise employees/applicants about their vocational plans.

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Sample Questions of Personality Tests

The following items are similar to items found on personality tests:

		Never	Seldom	Sometimes	Often	Always
1.	I enjoy reading books of fiction.
2.	I am more conservative than risk taking.
3.	Sometimes I get very nervous.
4.	I more often introduce myself to strangers than strangers introduce themselves to me.
5.	I consider myself more of a doer than a thinker.
6.	I like to set goals before beginning a project.
7.	I like to follow schedules.
8.	I think it is OK to bend the rules to complete a task on time.
9.	I enjoy long weekends.

Personnel Selection: Methods: Interviews

Personnel Selection: Methods: Interviews

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Interviews: A selection procedure designed to predict future job performance on the basis of applicants' oral responses to oral inquiries.

Advantages useful for determining if the applicant has requisite communicative or social skills which may be necessary for the job interviewer can obtain supplementary information used to appraise candidates' verbal fluency can assess the applicant's job knowledge can be used for selection among equally qualified applicants enables the supervisor and/or co-workers to determine if there is compatability between the applicant and the employees allows the applicant to ask questions that may reveal additional information useful for making a selection decision the interview may be modified as needed to gather important information

Disadvantages subjective evaluations are made decisions tend to be made within the first few minutes of the interview with the remainder of the interview used to validate or justify the original decision interviewers form stereotypes concerning the characteristics required for success on the job research has shown disproportionate rates of selection between minority and non-minority members using interviews negative information seems to be given more weight not much evidence of validity of the selection procedure not as reliable as tests

Tips Minimize stereotypes. To minimize the influence of racial and sex stereotypes in the interview process, provide interviewers with a job description and specification of the requirements for the position. Interviewers with little information about the job may be more likely to make stereotypical judgements about the suitability of candidates than are interviewers with detailed information about the job. Job Related. Try to make the interview questions job related. If the questions are not related to the job, then the validity of the interview procedure may be lower. Train Interviewers. Improve the interpersonal skills of the interviewer and the interviewer's ability to make decisions without influence from non-job related information. Interviewers should be trained to: avoid asking questions unrelated to the job avoid making quick decisions about an applicant avoid stereotying applicants avoid giving too much weight to a few characteristics. try to put the applicant at ease during the interview communicate clearly with the applicant maintain consistency in the questions asked

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Summary of Interviews

In general, interviews have the following weaknesses:

1. validity of the interview is relatively low
2. reliability of the interview is also low
3. stereotyping by interviewers, in general, may lead to adverse impact against minorities
4. the subjective nature of this procedure may allow bias such as favoritism and politics to enter into the selection process
5. this procedure is not standardized.
6. not useful when large numbers of applicants must be evaluated and/or selected

Types of Interviews

1. Unstructured Interview Involves a procedure where different questions may be asked of different applicants.
2. Situational Interview Candidates are interviewed about what actions they would take in various job-related situations. The job-related situations are usually identified using the critical incidents job analysis technique. The interviews are then scored using a scoring guide constructed by job experts.
3. Behavior Description Interviews Candidates are asked what actions they have taken in prior job situations that are similar to situations they may encounter on the job. The interviews are then scored using a scoring guide constructed by job experts.
4. Comprehensive Structured Interviews Candidates are asked questions pertaining to how they would handle job-related situations, job knowledge, worker requirements, and how the candidate would perform various job simulations. Interviews tapping job knowledge offer a way to assess a candidate's current level of knowledge related to relevant implicit dimensions of job performance (i.e., "tacit knowledge" or "practical intelligence" related to a specific job position)
5. Structured Behavioral Interview This technique involves asking all interviewees standardized questions about how they handled past situations that were similar to situations they may encounter on the job. The interviewer may also ask discretionary probing questions for details of the situations, the interviewee's behavior in the situation and the outcome. The interviewee's responses are then scored with behaviorally anchored rating scales.
6. Oral Interview Boards This technique entails the job candidate giving oral responses tojob-related questions asked by a panel of interviewers. Each member of the panel then rates each interviewee on such dimensions as work history, motivation, creative thinking, and presentation. The scoring procedure for oral interview boards has typically been subjective; thus, it would be subject to personal biases of those individuals sitting on the board. This technique may not be feasible for jobs in which there are a large number of applicants that must be interviewed.